Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Volume 91, Issue 2 , Pages 178-186 , 1 December 2007

Implicit attitudes to smoking are associated with craving and dependence

  • Andrew J. Waters

      Affiliations

    • Department of Behavioral Science, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, P.O. Box 30149, Unit 1330, Houston, TX 77230, United States
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +1 713 745 5614; fax: +1 713 794 4730.
  • ,
  • Brian L. Carter

      Affiliations

    • Department of Behavioral Science, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, P.O. Box 30149, Unit 1330, Houston, TX 77230, United States
  • ,
  • Jason D. Robinson

      Affiliations

    • Department of Behavioral Science, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, P.O. Box 30149, Unit 1330, Houston, TX 77230, United States
  • ,
  • David W. Wetter

      Affiliations

    • Department of Health Disparities Research, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 125, Houston, TX 77030, United States
  • ,
  • Cho Y. Lam

      Affiliations

    • Department of Behavioral Science, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, P.O. Box 30149, Unit 1330, Houston, TX 77230, United States
  • ,
  • Paul M. Cinciripini

      Affiliations

    • Department of Behavioral Science, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, P.O. Box 30149, Unit 1330, Houston, TX 77230, United States

Received 18 December 2006 ,Revised 23 April 2007 ,Accepted 22 May 2007.

References 

  1. Bassett JF, Dabbs JM. A portable version of the go/no-go association task (GNAT). Behav. Res. Methods, Instrum. Comput. 2005;37:506–512
  2. Blanton H, Jaccard J. Arbitrary metrics in psychology. Am. Psychol. 2006;61:27–41
  3. Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN, Lang PJ. Affect and the startle reflex. In:  Dawson ME,  Schell AM,  Bohmelt AH editor. Startle Modification: Implications for Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, and Clinical Science. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1999;p. 157–183
  4. Carter BL, Robinson JD, Lam CY, Wetter DW, Tsan JY, Day SX, et al. A psychometric evaluation of cigarette stimuli used in a cue reactivity study. Nicotine Tobacco Res. 2006;8:361–369
  5. Cinciripini PM, Wetter DW, Tomlinson GE, Tsoh JY, De Moor CA, Cinciripini LG, et al. The effects of the DRD2 polymorphism on smoking cessation and negative affect: evidence for a pharmacogenetic effect on mood. Nicotine Tobacco Res. 2004;6:229–239
  6. Cinciripini PM, Robinson JD, Carter BL, Lam CY, Wu X, De Moor CA, et al. The effects of smoking deprivation and nicotine administration on emotional reactivity. Nicotine Tobacco Res. 2006;8:379–392
  7. Cook EW, Davis TL, Hawk LW, Spence EW, Gautier CH. Fearfulness and startle potentiation during aversive visual stimuli. Psychophysiology. 1992;29:633–645
  8. Copeland AL, Brandon TH, Quinn EP. The Smoking Consequences Questionnaire-Adult: measurement of smoking outcome expectancies of experienced smokers. Psychol. Asses. 1995;7:484–494
  9. Cox LS, Tiffany ST, Christen AG. Evaluation of the brief questionnaire of smoking urges (QSU-brief) in laboratory and clinical settings. Nicotine Tobacco Res. 2001;3:7–16
  10. Cunningham WA, Preacher KL, Banaji MR. Implicit attitude measures: consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychol. Sci. 2001;12:163–170
  11. Cuthbert BN, Bradley MM, Lang PJ. Probing picture perception: activation and emotion. Psychophysiology. 1996;33:103–111
  12. de Houwer J. The implicit association test as a tool for studying dysfunctional associations in psychopathology. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry. 2002;53:115–133
  13. de Houwer J, Custers R, de Clercq A. Do smokers have a negative implicit attitude toward smoking?. Cognition Emotion. 2006;20:1274–1284
  14. Elash CA, Tiffany ST, Vrana SR. Manipulation of smoking urges and affect through a brief-imagery procedure: self-report, psychophysiological, and startle probe responses. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1995;3:156–162
  15. Fazio RH, Olson MA. Implicit measures in social cognition research: their meaning and use. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2003;54:297–327
  16. Fridlund AJ, Cacioppo JT. Guidelines for human electromyographic research. Psychophysiology. 1986;23:567–589
  17. Geier A, Mucha RF, Pauli P. Appetitive nature of drug cues confirmed with physiological measures in a model using pictures of smoking. Psychopharmacology. 2000;150:283–291
  18. Gemar MC, Segal ZV, Sagrati S, Kennedy SJ. Mood-induced changes on the implicit association test in recovered depressed patients. J. Abnormal Psychol. 2001;110:282–289
  19. Greenwald AG, Nosek BA, Banaji MR. Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An Improved Scoring Algorithm. J. Pers. Social Psychol. 2003;85:197–216
  20. Greenwald AG, Nosek BA, Banaji MR, Klauer KC. Validity of the Salience Asymmetry Interpretation of the Implicit Association Test: comment on Rothermund and Wentura (2004). J. Exp. Psychol.: Gen. 2005;134:420–425
  21. Greenwald AG, Nosek BA, Sriram N. Consequential validity of the Implicit Association Test: comment on the article by Blanton and Jaccard. Am. Psychol. 2006;61:56–61
  22. Hawk LW, Cook EW. Independence of valence modulation and prepulse inhibition of startle. Psychophysiology. 2000;37:5–12
  23. Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerstrom KO. The Fagerstrom Test for nicotine dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. Br. J. Addict. 1991;86:1119–1127
  24. Huijding J, de Jong PJ, Wiers RW, Verkooijen K. Implicit and explicit attitudes toward smoking in a smoking and nonsmoking context. Addict. Behav. 2005;30:949–961
  25. Huijding J, de Jong PJ. Automatic associations with the sensory aspects of smoking: positive in habitual smokers but negative in non-smokers. Addict. Behav. 2006;31:182–186
  26. Jajodia A, Earleywine M. Measuring alcohol expectancies with the Implicit Association Test. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 2003;17:126–133
  27. Jarvik ME, Henningfield JE. Pharmacological adjuncts for the treatment of nicotine dependence. In:  Orleans CT,  Slade J editor. Nicotine Dependence: Principles and Management. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1993;p. 245–261
  28. Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN. Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychol. Rev. 1990;97:377–395
  29. Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN. Motivated attention: affect, activation, and action. In:  Lang PJ,  Simons RF,  Balaban M editor. Attention and Orienting: Sensory and Motivational Processes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1997;p. 97–136
  30. Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., Cuthbert, B.N., 2005. International affective picture system (IAPS): affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical report A-6. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
  31. Larson CL, Ruffalo D, Nietert JY, Davidson RJ. Stability of emotion-modulated startle during short and long picture presentation. Psychophysiology. 2005;42:604–610
  32. Logan GL. Skill and automaticity: relations, implications, and future directions. Can. J. Psychol. 1985;39:367–386
  33. Moors A, de Houwer J. Automaticity: a theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychol. Bull. 2006;132:297–326
  34. Olson MA, Fazio RH. Reducing the influence of extra-personal associations on the Implicit Association Test: personalizing the IAT. J. Pers. Social Psychol. 2004;86:653–667
  35. Orain-Pelissolo S, Grillon C, Perez-Diaz F, Jouvent R. Lack of startle modulation by smoking cues in smokers. Psychopharmacology. 2004;173:160–166
  36. Palfai TP, Ostafin BD. Alcohol-related motivational tendencies in hazardous drinkers: assessing implicit response tendencies using the modified IAT. Behav. Res. Ther. 2003;41:1149–1162
  37. Parrott AW. Performance tests in human psychopharmacology (1): test reliability and standardization. Hum. Psychopharmacol.: Clin. Exp. 1991;6:1–9
  38. Phelps EA, O’Connor KJ, Cunningham WA, Funayama ES, Gatenby JC, Gore JC, et al. Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdale activation. J. Cognitive Neurosci. 2000;12:729–738
  39. Piper ME, Curtin JJ. Tobacco withdrawal and negative affect: an analysis of initial emotional response intensity and voluntary emotion regulation. J. Abnormal Psychol. 2006;115:96–102
  40. Rothermund K, Wentura D. Underlying processes in the Implicit Association Test: dissociating salience from associations. J. Exp. Psychol.: Gen. 2004;133:139–165
  41. Rudman LA. Sources of implicit attitudes. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2004;13:79–82
  42. Schneider W, Eschman A, Zuccolotto A. E-Prime User's Guide. Pittsburgh: Psychology Software Tools, Inc.; 2002;
  43. Sherman SJ, Rose JS, Koch K. Implicit and explicit attitudes toward cigarette smoking: the effects of context and motivation. J. Social Clin. Psychol. 2003;22:13–39
  44. Shiffman S, Waters AJ. Negative affect and smoking lapses: a prospective analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2004;7:192–201
  45. Shiffrin RM, Schneider W. Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychol. Rev. 1977;84:127–190
  46. Smith JC, Bradley MM, Lang PJ. State anxiety and affective physiology: effects of sustained exposure to affective pictures. Biol. Psychol. 2005;69:247–260
  47. Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Gibbon M. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R. Non-patient Version. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute; 1989;
  48. Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Kroenke K, Linzer M, deGruy FV, Hahn SR, et al. Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care: the PRIME-MD 1000 study. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1994;272:1749–1756
  49. Swanson JE, Rudman LA, Greenwald AG. Using the Implicit Association Test to investigate attitude-behaviour consistency for stigmatized behaviour. Cognition Emotion. 2001;15:207–230
  50. Teachman BA, Gregg AP, Woody SR. Implicit associations for fear-relevant stimuli among individuals with snake and spider fears. J. Abnormal Psychol. 2001;110:226–235
  51. Teachman BA, Woody SR. Automatic processing in spider phobia: implicit fear associations over the course of treatment. J. Abnormal Psychol. 2003;112:100–109
  52. Vrana SR, Spence EL, Lang PJ. The startle probe response: a new measure of emotion?. J. Abnormal Psychol. 1988;97:487–491
  53. Waters AJ, Shiffman S, Sayette MA, Paty JA, Gwaltney CG, Balabanis MH. Attentional bias predicts outcome in smoking cessation. Health Psychol. 2003;22:378–387
  54. Waters AJ, Sayette MA. Implicit cognition and tobacco addiction. In:  Wiers RW,  Stacy AW editor. Handbook on Implicit Cognition and Addiction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2005;p. 309–338
  55. Watson D, Clark LA, Tellegen A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J. Pers. Social Pers. 1988;54:1063–1070
  56. Wiers RW, van Woerden N, Smulders FTY, de Jong PJ. Implicit and explicit alcohol related cognitions in heavy and light drinkers. J. Abnormal Psychol. 2002;111:648–658
  57. Zeger SL, Liang KY, Albert PS. Models for longitudinal data: a generalized estimating equation approach. Biometrics. 1988;44:1049–1060

PII: S0376-8716(07)00236-0

doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.05.024

Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Volume 91, Issue 2 , Pages 178-186 , 1 December 2007